This is the fifth post in a series highlighting research from the Assembling a City project, which examines the urban metabolism of Toronto between the 1830s and the 1930s. The project is funded by a SSHRC Insight Development grant.

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It was a busy spring day on June 17, 1836, when the Steamer Oneida entered the Toronto Harbour and docked at Brown’s Wharf. The economy of Toronto, previously known as York just two years earlier, had been slowly growing through the trade industry in the Great Lakes. The Oneida was one of hundreds of ships that entered Toronto’s busy waterfront every year, carrying goods that would benefit its citizens and develop its economy. Common commodities found on these ships included raisins, fruit, tobacco, and coffee. Ships also brought less common items, like wheel barrows or thrashing machines.

Aboard the Oneida were the regular deliveries of fruit, raisins, tobacco, and coffee. The newly built ship carried these goods as part of a regular run between Ogdensburg and Lewiston near the foot of Niagara Falls. It stopped at fifteen different ports during its week-long round trips, including its home port of Oswego, and all were on the US side except for Toronto, Kingston, and Brockville.^[1] The ship in the cover photo, the Margaret Muir, was the same size and build, and is shown in port at Oswego just one year before it sank in Lake Michigan.

This week, in addition to its regular foodstuffs, the steamboat was also carrying 2 iron printing frames, 2 printing press boxes, 10 boxes of ware, and a Type 7 iron frame.^[2] These more unusual commodities were ordered by a certain William Lyon Mackenzie, first mayor of Toronto in 1834, owner of the Colonial Advocate and, later on, leader of the Upper Canada Rebellion. Mackenzie’s recent shipment of newspaper supplies would probably be used to print the newest edition featuring the upcoming Toronto Election. Rumours suggested that a combination of bribery, threats, and quick enfranchisement would secure the Tories a triumphant victory. Whatever the outcome of the election would be, “muckraker” Mackenzie would have certainly had something to say on Toronto’s politics.^[3]

However, before Mackenzie could receive his printing equipment, it had to first be processed by the Customs House of Toronto. The daily workings of customs administration sheds light on both political change and urban growth patterns through the pages of its ledgers.

Although duties and tariffs have largely been replaced by modern day free trade agreements, the records of the city’s Customs House administration had a key role in the growth of Canada, and continues to be a major asset for historical research. The records it produced, the Customs House Manifest, is one set of records that the Toronto Urban Metabolism Project has used in its research. The Custom House Manifests contain a record of all commodities the ships carried, and these records allow us to further explore the daily lives of Toronto citizens in the 19th century.

The historical context surrounding the Manifest is important to note. Our records of the Customs House Manifest span from 1836 to 1841, which covers the time period leading up to the Act of Union in 1841 that united Upper and Lower Canada to create the Province of Canada. These years were fraught with political tension in the Canadas as the colonies began to push for responsible government. A combination of Loyalist immigrants and the British social class system had created an elite, ruling class within the two Canadas, giving the reformers another reason to rebel. The Family Compact, the upper class that dominated Upper Canada, strongly disapproved of democracy and believed that the colonies ought to remain under British dominion. Its members were usually important figures within the industry of Upper Canada, and many of them resided in Toronto exerting their commercial and political influence.^[4]

A rare structure in today’s business world, the Customs Houses played an important role in the commerce of Upper Canada. When a ship carrying goods entered the harbour, the Customs House would carry out a process known as “customs administration” to apply and collect the correct duty and tariff rates. Each commodity and its quantity brought by a ship would be individually recorded in the Customs House Manifest. Based upon Britain’s well-established system, the customs administration allowed Upper Canada to track its imports and revenues.^[5]

When the Oneida entered the Toronto Harbour, it would have first been met by the Tide and Land Waiters. The Waiters were the lowest-ranking office in the customs administration, and were assistants to the Appraiser. They controlled the entry of goods, ensuring that the ship’s cargo matched its manifest. The Tide Waiter boarded the Oneida before it docked to carry out his role, and to prevent the cargo being unloaded prematurely. The Land Waiter performed his task after the ship had landed.^[6]

The Waiter’s role was to prevent smuggling, a relatively common occurrence along the Great Lakes. Tea was particularly attractive to smugglers  because of its size and consistently high demand.^[7] Since Mackenzie’s items were lower in demand and much larger than tea, it is safe to assume that they were legally entering the Toronto Harbour.

After the Waiter approved the Oneida’s cargo, including Mackenzie’s supplies, the contents were loaded into a sufferance warehouse. The purpose of a sufferance warehouse was to store the goods that had not yet been cleared by customs or that were awaiting duty payment before delivering them.^[8]

The Appraiser, previously known as the Searcher during the early years of administration, would determine the duty value for the commodities in storage. In larger ports, packages chosen by a computing clerk would be sent to an examining warehouse for the Appraiser.

The final step before Mackenzie could receive his order was paying the duty calculated by the Appraiser. He (the importer or consignee) would have one month to pay this amount. If he had not paid it, the items would be auctioned off and the remaining revenue, after paying off the duty and tariffs, would be given to the importer. If the auctioned amount did not cover the applied rates, the goods were destroyed. Since the newspaper supplies were important to Mackenzie’s business, it is presumable that he would have paid the amount in full.^[9] The duty paid by Mackenzie would have been collected by Thomas Carfrae, the Collector of the Customs House.^[10]

The Collector (sometimes confusingly referred to as the Customer) was the highest-ranking officer within the customs administration, and he played an important role in customs administration. In addition to collecting duties, Carfrae would have recorded all shipments and managed the daily operations of the Customs House.^[11] Oftentimes, the Collector was a member of Toronto’s higher social circles and held some influence over the town’s politics. This was evident in Carfrae’s life as he was involved in the creation of the York Fire Company, St. Andrew’s Presbyterian Church, and the York Mechanics’ Institute (later becoming the Toronto Public Library). He would later on become a council member for St. George’s Riding and the harbour master. However, Carfrae is most known for establishing the York General Burying Ground Trust, or “Potter’s Field,” the first non-denominational graveyard in Toronto.^[12]

During the early years of Canadian customs administration, there was a Controller. The Controller (or Deputy Collector) was the second highest position in the Customs House, and his main role was to review and verify the Collector’s records. However, he also performed basic administrative tasks. In 1840, the Controller was replaced by an inspector and audit system.^[13] The Controller during Mackenzie’s delivery was William Steward.^[14]

The location of the Customs House provides insight into Toronto’s developing waterfront. The Customs House in Toronto relocated several times throughout its lifetime. In 1820-1828, it was on Merchants’ Wharf at the end of Frederick St. From 1829 to 1835, it was close to Wellington Street East. This building would later become Thomas Carfrae’s house. The Customs House moved to Front Street near the Toronto Harbour in 1835. Six years later, it was located on Front Street West, on the southwest corner of Yonge Street. The Customs House remained there until the 1870s, when it moved further down Front Street West, situated between Yonge and Bay Streets. The building in 1870 was considered to be one of the finest buildings in Toronto at the time. Today, where the Toronto Harbour would have been in the 19th century, lies the busy Esplanade. A couple hundred metres from Front St, Lake Shore Boulevard and Queen’s Quay would have been underwater when the Oneida entered the harbour.^[15]

The Customs House and its administration plays a timeless and significant role. Historically, they calculated the duty and tariff rates on imports, keeping track of the town’s revenues. Presently, the records from the Customs House have allowed us to more closely examine the key components of the growth of Toronto.

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Notes

1. “Lake Ontario Summer Arrangements for 1836, The New and Rapid Steam Boat Oneida,” Chronicle & Gazette (Kingston, ON), June 8, 1836, p.3. https://images.maritimehistoryofthegreatlakes.ca/8766/data ; Oneida (Steamer, 1836), https://www.greatlakesvessels.org/3853788/data.

2. “Toronto Customs House fonds, 1836-1841,” F214, Archives of Ontario.

3. Will Ferguson, Canadian History for Dummies, 2nd Edition, (John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd, 2005), 191-192.ٰ

4. Ferguson, Canadian History for Dummies, 2nd Edition, 185-191

5. Gordon Blake, Customs Administration in Canada, (University of Toronto Press, 1957), 50

6. “Customs Service,” Pillars of a Nation, accessed May 13, 2026, at https://www.pillarsofanation.com.au/customs-service

7. Blake, Customs Administration, 32.

8. Blake, Customs Administration, 118-120.

9. Blake, Customs Administration, 32.

10. George Watson, The City of Toronto and the Home District Commercial Directory and Register with Almanack and Calendar for 1837, (Toronto: UC Toronto, 1837), 251, Digital Archive, https://digitalarchive.tpl.ca/objects/233603/the-city-of-toronto-and-the-home-district-commercial-directo#.

11. Blake, Customs Administration, 54-55.

12. “Thomas Carfrae: Civic Leader and Pioneer of Toronto’s Potter’s Field,” accessed May 14, 2026, at https://mpg200.ca/news/thomas-carfrae-civic-leader-and-pioneer-torontos-potters-field. 

13. Blake, Customs Administration, 118.

14. Watson, The City of Toronto, 251.

15. “Custom House (1820-1828), circa 1820, foot of Frederick St., on Merchants’ Wharf. Toronto, Ontario,” Digital Archive Ontario, accessed May 19, 2026, at https://digitalarchiveontario.ca/objects/266967/custom-house-18201828-circa-1820-foot-of-frederick-st?ctx=f2e7705c495eae8a9bc85f051da592b07410fd5b&idx=2; “Custom House (1829-1835), on the east side of Scott Street, near Wellington Street East,” Digital Archive Ontario, accessed May 13, 2026, at https://digitalarchiveontario.ca/objects/337387/custom-house-18291835-on-the-east-side-of-scott-street?ctx=af1d27f4a5e728321ed28c8658fe20f733b2f783&idx=0; “Custom House (1835-1841), Front Street East, north side,” Digital Archive Ontario, accessed May 13, at https://digitalarchiveontario.ca/objects/337392/custom-house-18351841-front-street-east-north-side-e; “Custom House (1841-1870), circa 1850, Front Street West, southwest corner Yonge Street, Toronto, Ontario,” Digital Archive Ontario, accessed May 13, 2026, at https://digitalarchiveontario.ca/objects/266966/custom-house-18411870-circa-1850-front-street-west-sou; “Custom House (1870-1876), Front Street West, north side, between Yonge & Bay Streets,” Digital Archive Ontario, accessed May 13. 2026 at https://digitalarchiveontario.ca/objects/337385/custom-house-18701876-front-street-west-north-side-bet?ctx=f2e7705c495eae8a9bc85f051da592b07410fd5b&idx=14;     

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Feature Image: The schooner Margaret A. Muir (right) in port at Oswego. Wikipedia.